What is the caveat with the times that the cellular generations started?
The caveat with the times that the cellular generations started is that they started at different times in different parts of the world.

Where did AMPS spread to?
AMPS spread to Central and South America and the Caribbean.

Where did NMT spread to?
NMT spread to European countries outside of Scandinavia.

What does the cellular industry being a service-type industry mean?
The cellular industry being a service-type industry means:

• Different components of the cellular ecosystem have to interact smoothly with one another.
• Companies operating in different markets have to cooperate with each other.

What three groups of companies made up the cellular industry from the 1980s to the 1990s?
The three groups of companies which made up the cellular industry from the 1980s to the 1990s include:

1. Companies that provided cellular infrastructure.
2. Companies that provided cellular devices.
3. Companies that provided cellular network services.

What two additional groups of companies started to play a role in the cellular industry in the late 1990s?
The two additional groups of companies which started to play a role in the cellular industry in the late 1990s include:

1. Developers and sponsors of smartphone operating systems.
2. Designers and makers of mobile semiconductors, especially baseband processors.

What are the rules of interaction created by committees called?
The rules of interaction created by committees are called standards.

How are the standards created by committees codified?
The standards created by committees are codified in detailed technical documents.

Would the cellular industry have been feasible without standards?
No, the cellular industry would not have been feasible without standards.

What are closed standards?
Closed standards are standards developed by a single company which owned all of the intellectual property and technical specifications of the standard.

What are only the owners of closed standards able to do?
Only the owners of closed standards are able to manufacture, or license other firms to manufacture, equipment adhering to the standard.
What are open standards?
Open standards are standards created by multiple organizations, often in committees, which are available to all.

When did competition between standards arise?
Competition between standards arose when promoters of different standards competed to gain adoption of their standard in different regions of the world.

When did competition between companies within the same standard arise?
Competition between companies within the same standard arose when companies competed by selling products, infrastructure technology, and handsets that adhered to a specific standard.

Did closed standards encourage within-standard competition?
No, by their very nature closed standards discouraged competition.

Did open standards encourage within-standard competition?
Yes, open standards encouraged competition.

Between closed standards and open standards, which had wider adoption and why?
Between closed standards and open standards, open standards had wider adoption because they encouraged competition in the supply of cellular technology.

Companies competing with one another within specific open standards led to ... prices for ...?
Companies competing with one another within specific open standards led to lower prices for cellular technology.

How did the prices of cellular technology using open standards encourage wider adoption?
The prices of cellular technology using open standards encouraged wider adoption because it was lower and more people could afford and access those cellular products.

What is the Network Effect?
The Network Effect is the idea that the value of a product / service increases as more people start using it.

When did the Network Effect kick in with the adoption of cellular technology using open standards and why?
The Network Effect kicked in with the adoption of cellular technology using open standards as more and more people bought phones and became cellular subscribers because the large numbers of users attracted more users.

Were closed standards ever adopted outside of the country where they were created?
No, closed standards were almost never adopted outside of the country where they were created.

Were open standards ever adopted outside of the country where they were created?
Yes, several open standards were widely adopted in countries outside of the one where they were created.

What are the two main examples of first-generation (1G) open standards that were widely adopted outside of the countries where they were created?
The two main examples of first-generation (1G) open standards that were widely adopted outside of the countries where they were created are:

1. AMPS.
2. NMT.

Have Network Effects played a role even with full interconnection between different cellular networks and the fixedline telephone system and why?
Yes, Network Effects have played a role even with full interconnection between different cellular networks and the fixedline telephone system because wireless carriers have implemented different pricing structures.

What do governments portion out to cellular communications?
Governments portion out to cellular communications the radio spectrum.

What two factors in the portioning of the radio spectrum by governments affect the evolution of the cellular industry?
The two factors in the portioning of the radio spectrum by governments which affect the evolution of the cellular industry include:

1. The timing of the allocation.
2. How generous the allocation was.

In the early years of the industry, who were some of the first cellular operators?
In the early years of the industry, some of the first cellular operators were subsidiaries of a government-owned fixedline company.

Some governments encouraged the rise of large domestic corporations that were referred to as what?
Some governments encouraged the rise of large domestic corporations that were referred to as "national champions."

What did national champions become with government support?
With government support, national champions became leading producers of cellular technology.

Governments ... cellular operators, which shaped the structure of the ... ...-... in each country.
Governments licensed cellular operators, which shaped the structure of the network-services market in each country.

Between who did interconnection disputes arise?
Interconnection disputes arose between private cellular operators and the government-owned fixedline company.

Who frequently intervened in interconnection disputes?
Government regulators frequently intervened in these disputes.

What two approaches for allocating radio frequencies were adopted beginning the 1990s?
The two approaches for allocating radio frequencies which were adopted in the 1990s were:

1. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
2. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).

What approach for allocating radio frequencies was used in the 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) standard?
The approach for allocating radio frequencies in the 4G LTE standard was Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA).